We can consider discourse in our discussion of intonation. This takes into account how the stresses we make, and the tone we employ when speaking, relate to the surrounding circumstances. We speak of ‘discourse‘, as a length of meaningful language, such as two or three sentences. Intonation can be used to present ideas and information within the sentences whether they are part of a conversation or a monologue. A simple example is seen in the idea of listing. If we say:

‘You need a pen, a pencil, and some paper.’

the voice tends to rise on pen and pencil, indicating that there is something more to come. The voice may then fall on paper, to indicate that that is the end of the list.

‘You need a ↗ pen, a ↗ pencil, and some ↘ paper.’
‘The store sells ↗ ribbons, ↗ beads, , ↗ elastic and ↘ buttons.’

The wider context of conversations is important, and we can see how the speaker’s intonation indicates his interpretation of what is shared knowledge and what isn’t. In the sentence:

‘When you get to the office, you’ll see a tall man named ↘ Sean.’

The name Sean is a new piece of information, and the voice falls on this word. A following sentence shows a different effect:

‘When you see \\↗ Sean, give him this letter.’

This time, there is a fall-rise on Sean, indicating that the name is now shared knowledge. It also helps indicate that the rest of the instruction is to follow.

The choices we make, while being for the most part unconscious, help us to guide and control our conversations. The advantage of this approach over the grammatical / attitudinal indicator approaches is that clear rules can be given with regard to appropriate choices of patterns.

The most basic intonation choice is between what are known as referring tones (r) and proclaiming tones (p ). The two most frequently used tones in English are the fall and the fall-rise. A falling tone is called a ↘ proclaiming tone (p), and the fall-rise is a \\↗ referring tone (r).

We can think of the choice between these tones as indicating two alternatives. One alternative is that the speaker is expressing information that is presumed to be new, or is adding something to the discussion. In this case a ↘ proclaiming tone is used. We also use the proclaiming tone to give facts, express opinions we believe to be true, or to ask for new information.

The other alternative is that the speaker is referring to information presumed to be shared between the speakers. In this case a \\↗ referring tone is used. In questions, we use a referring tone to make sure what we are saying is correct, or to check information. Consider the examples:

Example	Explanation
//↘ WHAT time does your TRAIN leave//	I’m asking you for a piece of new  information. A p tone indicates this.
//↗ WHAT time does your TRAIN leave//	You’ve told me the train time earlier,  but I have forgotten. I use the r tone to indicate that there has been shared information, and to make sure.
//↘ she’s LIVED in LONdon// //↘ since she was TWENty//	I’m telling you some facts about her that you don’t know. The p tone indicates that this is new information.
//↘ he LIVES in the house on the CORner//	I’m telling you a fact about him that you don’t know. The p tone indicates that this is new information.

Taking the last two examples from the previous table, let’s see how a change
in tone might reflect the utterances being used in different situations, where
there is some shared knowledge:

Example	Explanation
//\↗ she’s LIVED in LONdon// //↘ since she was TWENty//	We both know that she lives in London; the shared information is shown by the r tone in the first tone unit. You have asked me how long she’s lived there. This new information is reflected by the p tone in the second tone unit.
//↘ he LIVES in the house on the CORner//	We both know that we’re talking about the house on the corner. You have just said ‘John’s buying the house on the corner, isn’t he?’ I’m telling you something you appear not to know, and this is shown by the p tone on ‘lives’.

The onset syllable usually sets a pitch which carries on until the tonic syllable is reached. This constant pitch is called the key. Using a high key usually means that the speaker is contrasting something with what has been said before. Starting a conversation with a high key is usually a good way of engaging the interest of the listener. A mid-key usually adds something to what has been said, and a low key indicates that the information is a natural follow-on from before. The key is of course relative, in two ways: it is relative to what has been said before, and also relative to the speaker’s voice qualities and typical speaking habits.

Listen to these examples and look at the transcriptions.

//\↗ he MIGHT have been//↘ aTTACKED by an ANimal//
//\↗ he COULD have been//↘ aTTACKED by an ANimal//
//\↗ perHAPS he was//↘ aTTACKED by an ANimal//
//\↗if he WAS attacked by an animal//↘ he COULD have run aWAY//
//↘he CAN’T have been attacked by an animal//↘ THATS too EAsy//

Consistencies in the intonation patterns can be heard in another example:

//\↗ he MIGHT have been//↘ PArachuting//
//\↗ he COULD have been//↘ PArachuting//
//\↗ perHAPS he was//↘ PArachuting//
//\↗ if he WAS parachuting//↘ he COULD have used a resERVE//
//↘ he CAN’T have been parachuting//↘ THATS too EAsy//

In the next example, there is one tone unit, with the main tone movement (a fall-rise) being on the noun. The verbs are stressed, and set the key. The context is seeking information from a stranger using an indirect question:

//\↗ do you KNOW where the BANK is please//
//\↗ could you TELL me where the BANK is please//

You can also see the pattern in a visual way. The tonic syllables are underlined, and in capitals.

The pattern here is quite clear. While this is not to say that the sentences must be or will always be said in this way, the suggested intonation is at least appropriate.

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